Cattle Productivity under Oil Palm

Young oil palm plantations provide a favourable environment for cattle production.

energy and crude protein content. In a grazing trial under oil palm, stocking rate

increased from three to eight years. Animal production dropped from 289 to 69 kg

RUMINANT production in Malaysia has not advanced significantly in the last two decades. In 1988 it dropped from self-sufficiency to levels of sufficiency of 34% in beef, 8% in mutton and 5% in milk, despite apparent growth in production of 6.3%, 3.6%, and

8.4%, respectively.Most of the ruminants in the country are owned by smallholder farmers and the major constraint to increased livestock production is the difficulty in

providing feed of sufficient quantity and with adequate nutrient composition throughout the year,especially during peak cropping periods when most of the land is under cultivation. Good agricultural land in Malaysia is usually intensively cropped and is not

paddy in the mid-1960s, there has been a shift of ruminant production from granary areas and traditional villages to the plantations. The shift is expected to accelerate, making tree-crop plantations the new centre for livestock production in Malaysia.Of the 45 560 t of ruminant meat consumed in Malaysia in 1988, 85% was beef, making cattle the main animal species for meat production. There are currently about 1.8 million ha of oil palm available in the country and although cattle are regularly grazed under coconut lantations, research on cattle–oil palm integration started only in the early 1970s. The objectives of this paper are to highlight progress made in research and development of cattle roduction

under oil palm in relation to the feed resources and the effects of animal grazing on the plantation crop.*Livestock Research Division, MARDI, Malaysia

Under normal estate conditions, the vegetation biomass accumulates to gain full ground cover between one and two years after planting of oil palms.It reaches a peak yield of 5.5-9.5 t DM/ha (if not weeded) around years three and four before canopy closure. In a well managed oil palm plantation, intensive weeding programs start immediately after

planting the oil palms. The aim is to control competitive weeds such as Imperata cylindrica,Chromolaena odoratum, Asystasia intrusa and sedges, to facilitate the establishment of leguminous cover crops. Some oil palm estates may tolerate the

existence of less competitive weeds such as Paspalum conjugatum and Ottochloa nodosa, but many do not. Due to the continuous growth of palm, illumination through the fronds is rapidly reduced which in turn reduces the dry matter yield and changes the botanical

composition of the forages available. Sun-loving species will eventually disappear from the understorey vegetation. Recent studies of Chen and Othman ( 1983) and Wan Mohamed et al. (1987) show a rapid decline in legume composition and an increase

in proportion of grasses and broadleafed weeds as oil palms age (Fig. 1). By year six, legumes accounted for less than 10% and grasses increased to more than 60%

of the total dry matter yield.There are more than 60 species recorded ascontributing to effective forage yield under normally managed oil palm plantations. Of those, 70% are

palatable to ruminants.Nutritionally, forage resources under oil palm are varied and rich in protein, especially in the early years, because of the high legume content. The crude

protein of grasses under most plantation ranges from 8 to 17%, broadleaved weeds from 13 to 16%, and palatable weed species such as Mikania cordata and Asystasia intrusa from 15 to 22%, while the legumes range from 15 to 28%. Further, the estimated energy concentration for grasses under plantations varies from 7 to 10 MJ metabolisable energy (ME) per kg DM. while broadleaved species and ferns appear to have values superior to the grasses (Lane and Mustapha 1983). Thus the nutritive value of natural

herbage under plantations is comparatively high, especially when total nutrient availability from broadleaves species such as A. intrusa and cover crop legumes is considered.

Figure 1. Botanical composition of ground vegetation in relation to age of oil palm.

The main objective of introducing cattle into oil palm plantations is to control the excessive growth of vegetation which may compete with the oil palm. However, if introduced too early, the animals may cause severe damage to young oil palms.An experiment was established in a newly planted oil palm plantation to evaluate the time of introduction of cattle on severity of damage to the palms (Mohd.Sukri et al. 1982). Guinea grass and different leguminous cover crops were established under the palms. The results indicated that it is possible to introduce cattle for free grazing at a minimum palm

age of one year. Frond damage was unavoidable since palms were relatively small at that early stage. yet the effects of grazing on flowering and fruiting of the palms were almost negligible. However. there was a tendency for earlier flowering and fruiting of palms in

photosynthesising fronds may disturb palm growth and delay maturity. it may be advisable to delay introduction of grazing animals another 6- 12 months. i.e. at a palm age of 1.5-2 years. It is suggested that an initial stocking rate of 550-750 kg liveweight biomass/ ha (2-2.8 cattle/ha) (depending upon the availability of ground cover) should be maintained for the first six months after introduction until full ground cover is achieved, and a slightly higher stocking rate can then be imposed during the early stages of the oil

palm plantation. Frond damage is often noticed even in older plantations (3-4 years). Othman et al. ( 1985) reported that the number of fronds nibbled by grazing cattle

increases when greater grazing pressure is imposed (Table 1). However, fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield was affected only when frond damage reached 57% at the high stocking rate of 3 cattle/ha in four-year-old oil palm. It was observed that the majority of the damaged fronds were in the lower part of the canopy and had already reached senescence. Hence it may be that cattle nibbling of fronds may serve a useful pruning effect on the palm.

Frond damage of oil palm grazed by cattle at different stocking rates (after Othman et al. 1985).

The performance potential of cattle grazing forages grown under the plantations is poorly documented. In an experiment in Malaysia, comparison was made of two systems of grazing (rotational and continuous) cattle on forages under oil palm and improved tropical pastures in

the open. The cattle used were young male Kedah- Kelantan (KK). Pastures in the open comprised nitrogenfertilised guinea grass, while cattle under plantation grazed natural herbage available under 2-year-old oil palm. No supplementary feed was given except mineral lick. Fertilizers applied to the improved full-sun guinea pastures were 300 kg N, 50 kg P and 100 kg K/ha/year, but forage under oil palm was not fertilised. The performance of animals is shown in Table 2. Daily liveweight gain of cattle grazing at one animal/ha under oil palm was higher than those grazing improved pastures in the open. This resulted in earlier marketing of animals by 4-6 months. Better animal performance under oil palm is believed to be due to the high quality of the multi-species feed resources, with high energy and protein contents, and to the lower stocking rate employed. Liveweight gain of cattle grazing at two animals/ha under oil palm was limited by forage availability. While daily liveweight gains of cattle grazing under oil palm were high, the

overall productivity per ha was low when compared to open pastures (Table 2). Liang et al. (1988) and Liang and Samiyah (1988) reported that the maintenance requirement of

metabolisable energy for KK cattle was 494 KJ ME/kg 0.75, while the intake of cattle grazing IO-week-old guinea grass was only 477 KJ ME/kg0.75 or 1.9% of bodyweight. By contrast, the dry matter intake of cattle grazing natural forage under oil palm was 2.3% of bodyweight or 1.4 times maintenance requirement. The more favourable climatic environment of plantations such as the lower ambient temperature (1-3°C lower) and the small increase in relative humidity (1-6% units higher), as summarised by Wilson (1988), may have improved the performance of animals under plantations. Similar results, in which better animal performance under oil palm (Table 3) was obtained compared with other systems such as bunds and roadside and open-improved pasture, were reported by Dahlan and Mohd. Ariff (1987).

The productivity and optimal stocking rate of cattle under oil palm depends upon the availability of forage which declines with incident radiation as the palms grow older. Othman et al. (1985) and Wan Mohamed et al. (1987) reported daily liveweight gains of 264, 159, 390, 169 and 188 g/head, equivalent to 289, 174, 284, 123 and 69 kg/ha/year, from KK cattle under oil palm as the tree age increased from 1 to 5 years respectively. These liveweight gains were achieved under initial stocking rates of 3 (years 1+2), 2 (years 3+4) and 1 (year 5) KK cattle/ha. Final stocking rate may be as low as 0.3 head/ha as feed resources become scarce. These cattle liveweight production levels compare with figures of 337, 244 and 319 g/head/day, equivalent to 226, 355 and 465 kg/ha/year obtained over three years from improved pastures in the open (Eng et al. 1978).

Wan Mohamed et al. (1987) investigated the reproduction of 300 KK cattle grazing on naturally

Liveweight gain comparison of Kedah-Kelantan (KK) cattle grazing under oil palm and in the open (C.P. Chen - unpublished data).

(light transmission 10%) in a Federal Land Development Agency (FELDA) scheme over two

years. The average conception rate of cows, with access to fertile bulls year-round, was 52%, and the percentage of cows with and without corpus luteum was 25 and 23, respectively. There was an increasing trend of anoestrus animals towards the end of the second year, with values from 10 to 41%. The authors attributed this effect to the low forage availability at that time. The mean herbage yield on-offer recorded over the period was only 355 kg DM/ha, comprising

37% native grasses (mainly Axonopus compressus), 27% ferns, 12% Asystasia intrusa, 20% woody shrubs and some other species. At the end of the second year the stocking rate was recorded at 0.75 head KK/ha, giving a total liveweight biomass of 95 kg/ha.

The vast land area of immature oil palm plantation containing 5.5-9.5 t DM/ha of green ground covers is a good niche for beef cattle production. The oil palm plantations provide not only a favourable climatic environment but also good quality forage with a high metabolisable energy and crude protein content for animal production.

Green vegetation under young oil palm comprised approximately 60% grasses, 20% legumes and 20% broadleafed weeds.

Cattle can damage young oil palm. Frond nibbling is unavoidable but it can be minimised by not introducing grazing animals until the crop age reaches 1-2 years. It was observed that oil palm frond damage within a range of 3-40% can be accepted with no significant loss of yield. The animals effectively pruned the palms.

The optimum stocking rate declined with time from three KK cattle to one per ha as tree age increased from three to eight years. Animal liveweight production dropped from 289 to 69 kg/ha over the same period. There was a problem of low Irrigation bunds and roadsides Under oil palm plantations Crossbred cattle Liveweight gain (g/head/day) reproduction of cattle when the palm canopy closed (about 10% sunlight) and there was little forage

Chen, C.P. and Othman, A. 1983. Effect of cattle production on forage under oil palm - a preliminary report. In: Devendra, C., Sivarajasingam, S., Kassim Hamid and Vidyadaran, M.K., ed., Proceedings 7th Annual Conference Malaysian Society of Animal Production, Port Dickson. Malaysia, 214-227.

Dahlan, I. and Mohd. Ariff, O. 1987. Performance of Kedah-Kelantan (KK) cattle and its crossbred under various grazing systems. In: Hutagalung R.I., Chen, C.P., Wan Mohamed. W.E., Law Ah Theem and Sivarajasingam. S., ed., Proceedings 10th Annual Conference Malaysian Society of Animal Production, Genting Highlands, Malaysia, 304-307.

Eng. P.K., ’t Mannetje. L. and Chen, C.P. 1978. Effect of phosphorus and stocking rate on pasture and animal production from a guinea grass-legume pasture in Johore, Malaysia. II. Animal liveweight change.

Lane, I.R. and Mustapha, M. 1983. Utilisation of natural pastures for dairy cattle in humid tropics. Fifth World Conference on Animal Production, Tokyo, Japan, 2 p.

Liang, J.B. and Samiyah, M.N. 1988. Comparative intake, digestibility and utilisation of guinea grass by buffaloes and cattle. MARDI Research Journal, 16, 43-47.

Liang, J.B., Samiyah, M.N. and Hirooka, H. 1988. Energy requirements for growing Kedah-Kelantan (KK) and Brahman x KK heifers in Malaysia. MARDI Research Journal, 16, 163-170.

Mohamad, N., Shamsuddin, A.B. and Chen, C.P. 1987. Integration of cattle under oil palm: Reproduction and economic potentials. In: Hutagalung R.I., Chen, C.P., Wan Mohamed, W.E.. Law Ah Theem and

Sivarajasingam. S., ed., Proceedings 10th Annual Conference, Malaysian Society of Animal Production,

Genting Highlands, Malaysia, 328-338. Mohd. Sukri, H.I., Rosmawati, O. and Musaddin, K. 1982.

Integration of Kedah-Kelantan cattle with oil palms - A preliminary report. MARDI Research Bulletin. IO.

Othman, A., Mohd Sukri, H.I., Wong, CC., Eng, P.K. and Chen, C.P. 1985. Integrasi lembu daging di ladangladang kepapa sawit. Teknoloqi Ternakan, 1, 105-110.

Wan Mohamed, W.E., Hutagalung, R.I. and Chen, C.P. 1987. Feed availability, utilisation and constraints in plantation-based livestock production system. In: Hutagalung R.I., Chen, C.P., Wan Mohamed, W.E.,

Law Ah Theem and Sivarajasingam, S., ed., Proceedings 10th Annual Conference, Malaysian

Wilson, J.R. 1988. Ecophysiological constraints in forage and animal production under tree crops. Paper

presented at FAO/International Livestock-tree Cropping Workshop held at MARDI. Serdang,

Oil-Palm Fronds As a Roughage Feed
Source for Ruminants in Malaysia

O. Abu Hassan*, M. Ishida**, I. Mohd. Shukri* and Z. Ahmad Tajuddin*
*Livestock Research Division,
Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI),
G.P.O. Box 12301,
50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
**Laboratory of Dairy Cattle Feeding,
Department of Forage Production and Utilization,
National Grassland Research Institute,
Nishinasuno, Tochigi, 329-27 Japan, 1994-06-01

Oil palm (Elaeis guianensis) grows well in wet, humid parts of tropical Asia (mainly South-east Asia), Africa, and Central and South America. A tremendous amount of fibrous biomass from both the palms and the fruit processing are generated by the industry. Currently, Malaysia is still the leader in oil palm/palm oil production, which produced approximately 18.77 million mt (on a dry matter basis) of oil palm fronds in 1994.

A major reason for the slow growth of the ruminant industry in Malaysia is the lack of good-quality feed resources. Oil-palm fronds can be used as a substitute for grasses in cases where forage or fodder is a limiting factor. The recommended level of oil-palm fronds in the total mixed rations (on a dry matter basis) are 50% for beef cattle, and 30% for dairy cattle and goats.

Abstract

Introduction

The strength of agricultural production in Malaysia lies in the large plantations of commercial crops such as rubber, oil palm, cocoa and pineapple. These crops occupy most of the arable land. Malaysia does not have natural grasslands, while improved pastures are still limited to a few commercial and government farms. Prospects for the increased use of farmland for grass or fodder production are not favorable (Joseph 1991), because national policy states that any conversion of tropical rainforest to pastures for grazing animals has no justification from either the economic or the environmental point of view. Commercial large-scale ruminant production is rare. It is smallholders who are traditionally the main ruminant producers. The smallholders have to use their limited land and capital, and diminishing communal grazing reserves, and integrate their livestock production with their rubber or oilpalm holdings. This has perpetuated the pattern of low-input/low-outputs traditional production systems which sometimes lead to feed supply shortages (Chen and Shamsudin 1991).

This situation is compounded by the rapid development and industrialization of Malaysia. The self-sufficiency rate for ruminant products is about 24.07 for beef, 4.67 for dairy products, and 9.03% for lamb/mutton. (The figure of 4.67% self-sufficiency for dairy is based on a liquid milk equivalent for dairy and dairy products). These self-sufficiency rates are declining, due to an increased demand for the products with a higher population and income levels. Poultry and swine production are heavily dependent on imported feed ingredients, mainly corn, soybean and fishmeal. Even though Malaysia is self-sufficient in swine and poultry products, and is able to export some pork, poultry meat and eggs, Malaysia is still a net importer of animal products (Mahyuddin 1993).

The ruminant sector in particular is well suited to maintaining competitiveness through the use of plantation and processing by-products (Abu Hassan et al. 1995). Of the commercial plantation crops, oil palm produces the most abundant biomass, and oil palm fronds have been shown to be a very promising source of roughage for ruminants. This paper examines the use of oil palm fronds as livestock feed, and discusses the potential of using local raw materials to boost the production of ruminants in Malaysia.

Availability of Oilpalm Fronds

The average economic life-span of the oil palm is 25 years. A marked increase in the cultivation of oil palm began in 1960 (Kamaruddin et al. 1991), so that the year 1990 onwards will see a peak in replanting. This will be a good opportunity to harness the ligno-cellulosic biomass or by-products of the oil palm, including the fronds (Table 1). Oil- palm fronds are available daily throughout the year when the palms are pruned during the harvesting of fresh fruit bunches for the production of oil.

Currently, oil-palm fronds are left rotting between the rows of palm trees, mainly for soil conservation, erosion control and ultimately the long-term benefit of nutrient recycling. The large quantity of fronds produced by a plantation each year make these a very promising source of roughage feed for ruminants.

Processing and Utilization of Oil-Palm Fronds As a Roughage Source for Ruminants

Whole oil-palm fronds (the petiole and leaflets), chopped into lengths of about 2 cm, are utilized as cattle feed either green, or conserved as silage in combination with other ingredients as total mixed rations (Abu Hassan and Ishida 1991, Ishida and Abu Hassan 1992). The chemical analysis and metabolizable energy (ME) value of oil-palm fronds (Table 2) indicate that they are suitable as a roughage source (Alimon and Hair Bejo 1995, Wong and Wan Zahari 1992, Mat Rasol et al. 1993).

Oil-palm fronds belong to the category of fibrous crop residues, which also includes by-products such as rice straw. Previous studies comparing oil-palm trunks as a roughage feed (Oshio et al. 1990) with rice straw supported the use of the oil-palm materials as a source of roughage for ruminants, as did a long-term feeding trial of oil-palm trunks for beef production (Abu Hassan et al. 1991). Table 3 shows the percentage of dry matter, crude protein content and digestibility of oil-palm fronds made into silage, and with added urea.

A digestibility study conducted using mature Kedah-Kelantan bulls (Abu Hassan and Ishida 1992) indicated a dry matter digestibility value of about 45% for oilpalm frond silage. This encouraging result was further tested for the suitability of oilpalm fronds in long-term feeding/production trials on beef cattle (growing and finishing), and also on lactating dairy cows (Tables 4 Table 5 Table 6), (Abu Hassan et al. 1993, Ishida et al. 1994).

A feeding trial was conducted, using 24 bulls fed on oil-palm frond silage and concentrates based on palm kernal cake (Table 4). After the growing and finishing stage, the bulls were slaughtered for carcass evaluation. The feed required for bulls for a given body weight gain was generally lower with higher levels of oil-palm silage in the diet. When feed intake was compared to fat and meat production (Table 5), there was found to be less excess carcass fat in treatments with higher levels of oil-palm frond silage.

Lean meat production was not significantly reduced by the incorporation of up to 30% oil-palm frond silage in the diet (on a dry matter basis). These observations clearly showed that oil-palm frond silage could be utilized as a feed source for raising beef cattle. Since the fronds cost little or nothing, including them in the diet resulted in lower feeding costs.

A trial of silage made from oil-palm fronds as a source of roughage for lactating dairy cows was also carried out (Table 6). The cows fed 30% oil-palm frond silage produced milk more efficiently than other groups, while generally the cows in all treatment groups were healthy. The trials confirmed that oil-palm frond silage made of oil-palm fronds could be fed to lactating dairy cows as a roughage source without adverse effects on animal condition or milk flavor. The optimum level of inclusion of oil-palm frond silage in the diet should be 30% (on a dry matter basis).

According to these studies where the supply of grass or fodder is a limiting factor, feeding oil-palm fronds to dairy cattle is a satisfactory alternative. The animals were able to perform at a level comparable to when they were fed cut grass, and there were no nutritional disorders or other negative effects on the animals.

Transferring the Technology

Since the release of the technology in 1992, both the mass media and extension staff have made the information available to farmers. The effectiveness of these two methods of communication varied, according to the type of farmer and the stage of his decision-making process.

The mass-media (TV, radio and printed media) were more effective for early adopters, and those at the knowledge stage of the innovation decision process. Interpersonal channels (training courses and demonstrations), were more favorable for later adopters, as well as for those at the persuasion stage of the innovation decision process.

Adoption of the Technology by Extension Agencies, Farmers and Producers

A high level of interest in, and acceptance of, the technology was indicated by the following trends (Abu Hassan et al. 1995):

Repeated requests for information by producers, farmers and extension agencies, and repeated visits to demonstration and training sessions.
More than 100 units of the chopping machines have been sold.
The emergence of duplicate chopping machines, based on the machine used in field demonstrations. A number of new chopper machines, such as the Bandit, the Tomahwk, etc, have been introduced onto the market.
Evidence that successful enterprises and farmers are using oil-palm fronds as the roughage source in their feeding programs.
The strength of oil-palm frond technology - evidence of early techno-logy push transforming ultimately into technology pull (i.e. whereas in the early stages this use of oil-palm fronds had to be actively promoted by demonstrations and mass media, farmers themselves are now becoming much more active in learning about it, and adapting the technology).

Selected Examples of Early Adopters of the Oil Palm Frond Technology

Generally, the producers who have adopted the technology have confirmed that the supply of fresh oil-palm fronds is plentiful, and there is no urgent need to conserve them as silage. Feeding fresh chopped fronds is easier and requires less labor than cutting grass. By using oil-palm fronds as a roughage source for livestock, feeding, operational and management costs are tremendously reduced. Table 7 shows the profile of some of the early producers who adopted the oil-palm technology. It also shows why they needed to acquire the technology.

All five producers reported that using oil-palm fronds did not compromise the performance or production potential of their animals. Their serious problem of a roughage/feed shortage was completely solved, and in the case of the dairy cattle, the milk quality (fat %) produced on the farm improved tremendously.

Technical Capacity of Producers (Early Adopters) in Utilizing the Oilpalm Frond Technology

The success of the transfer of oil-palm frond technology depends on two factors: the appropriateness of the technology, and the technical capacity of the users.

Table 8 shows that the technology is appropriate for a wide range of users, with small or large land holdings, and with only average amounts of capital and experience.

WHY Oil-Palm Frond Technology Was Well Sustained As a Viable Enterprise by Producers

The oil-palm frond technology was well received because it met five attributes of innovations favorable for adoption (Roger 1983, Ahmad Tajuddin 1993) (see below).

There do not seem to be any negative attributes with regards to oil-palm frond technology, except perhaps the cost of the chopping machine. In some cases, this high cost has been overcome by reverse engineering and local fabrication of the machines. One common factor recognized among the producers was the cost-saving effect of using oil-palm fronds in their production (especially in terms of feeding and labor costs). This is very significant in the context of the Malaysian animal industry, as in production elsewhere.

Conclusion

Oil-palm fronds have been success-fully used as a substitute for tropical grasses by ruminant producers in Malaysia. The optimal levels of inclusion of the fronds in the total mixed rations on a dry matter basis were 50% for beef cattle, and 30% for dairy cattle and goats/sheep. Continuous promotion of the technology needs to be implemented in all production systems, adapted according to the needs of producers. Development should include utilization both on oilpalm plantations themselves, as part of an integrated crop livestock system, and on nearby livestock farms.

References

Abu Hassan, O. and M. Ishida. 1991. Effect of water, molasses and urea addition on oil palm frond silage quality- Fermentation characteristics and palatability to Kedah-Kelantan bulls. Proc. of the 3rd. Int. Symp. on the Nutrition of Herbivores. 25-30th Augutst 1991, Penang, Malaysia, pp. 94.
Abu Hassan, O., S. Oshio, A.R. Ismail, D. Mohd. Jaafar, N. Nakanishi, I. Dahlan, and S.H. Ong. 1991. Experiences and challenges in processing, treatment, storage and feeding of oil palm trunks based diets for beef production. Proc. of Seminar on Oil Palm Trunks and Other Palmwood Utilization. (Oil Palm Tree Utilization Committee of Malaysia). 4-5th March 1991, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia, pp. 231-245.
Abu Hassan, O. and M. Ishida. 1992. Status of utilization of selected fibrous crop residues and animal performance with emphasis on processing of oil palm fronds (OPF) for ruminant feed in Malaysia. Tropical Agriculture Research Center TARS No. 25. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tsukuba, Japan, pp. 134-143.
Abu Hassan, O., A.R. Azizan, M. Ishida, and C. Abu Bakar. 1993. Oil palm fronds silage as a roughage source for milk production in Sahiwal-Friesian cows. Proc. of 16th. Malaysian Society of Animal Production. 8-9th June 1993, Pulau Langkawi, Malaysia, pp. 34-35.
Abu Hassan, O., M. Ishida and Z. Ahmad Tajuddin. 1995. Oil palm fronds (OPF) technology transfer and acceptance: A sustainable in-situ utilization for animal feeding. Proc. of the 17th Malaysian Society of Animal Production. 28-30th. May 1995, Penang, Malaysia, pp. 134-137.
Abu Hassan, O., K. Nazari and Z. Ahmad Tajuddin. 1995. Beyond in-situ utilization of fibrous agriculture biomass as animal feed: Challenges and considerations for commercial production parameters. Proc. of the 17th. Malaysian Society of Animal Production. 28-30th. May 1995, Penang, Malaysia, pp. 134-137.
Ahmad Tajuddin, Z. 1993. Livestock Enterprise Development in Malaysia. Development Approaches for Livestock-based Rural Enterprises. Extension Bulletin No. 383, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the ASPAC Region, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC.
Alimon, A.R. and M. Hair Bejo. 1995. Feeding systems based on oil palm by-products in Malaysia. 1st International Symposium on the integration of livestock to oil palm production. MSAP/FAO and UPM, 25-27th June 1995, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Chen, C.P. and Shamsuddin, A.B. 1991. Limitation of forage availability on cattle productivity under oil palm. Paper presented at the FAO/South East Asia Workshop on Utilization of Native Forages for Animal Production, Manila, Philippines. (Unpub. mimeograph).
Ishida, M. and O. Abu Hassan. 1992. Effect of urea treatment level on nutritive value of oil palm fronds silage in Kedah- Kelantan bulls. Proc. of the 6th. AAAP Animal Science Congress. Vol. 3, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 68.
Ishida, M. and O. Abu Hassan. 1992. Chemical composition and in-vitro digestibility of leaf and petiole from various locations in oil palm fronds. Proc. of the 15th. Malaysian Society of Animal Production, 26-27th May 1992, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, pp. 115-118.
Ishida, M., O. Abu Hassan, T. Nakui and F. Terada. 1994. Oil Palm Fronds as Ruminant Feed. Japan International Research for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), Newsletter for International Collaboration 2, 1: 12-13.
Joseph, K.T. 1991. Sustaining agricultural land in Malaysia, Policies, Prospects and Problems. In: Proc., Seminar on Sixth Malaysia Plan, Agricultural Policies and Strategies, Abdul Aziz, S.A.K. et al. (eds.). pp. 3-17.
Kamaruddin, H., H. Abdul Halim, R. Riazuan and J. Mohd. Zain. 1991. Improvement of oil palm fronds CTM-pulp brightness - a preliminary study. Proc. of Seminar on Oil palm trunks and other palmwood utilization (Oil Palm Tree Utilization Committee of Malaysia), 4-5th. March 1991, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 219-230.
Mohamad, H., H.A. Halim and T.M. Ahmad. 1986. Availability and Potential of Oil Palm Trunks and Fronds up to the year 2000. Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM), Occasional Paper No. 20, pp. 17.
Mahyuddin, M.D. 1993. A Review of the Malaysian Livestock Industry. Animal Industry in Malaysia. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, pp. 1-6.
Oshio, S., O. Abu Hassan, A. Takigawa, D. Mohd. Jaafar, A. Abe, I. Dahlan and N. Nakanishi. 1990. Processing and utilization of oil palm by-products for ruminants. MARDI/TARC @ JIRCAS Collaborative Study Report, p. 110.
Rogers, E. 1983. Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press, New York, U.S.A.

Attribute Contributing factors
Relative Removes drudgery of cutting and collecting grasses (time- and cost-saving)
Complexity Simple technology
Compatibility Supplies technology to replace the drudgery of cutting and collecting grasses, as well as a suitable substitute for grass, on a sustainable basis
Testability Although the chopper has to be purchased, some sellers allow demonstration and testing of these machines
Observability Field demonstrations at the source of the technology, and also on farms of early adopters

Index of Images

Table 1 Estimated Availability of Oil-Palm Trunks and Fronds (MT, DRY Matter Basis)
in Malaysia
Table 2 Chemical Composition (% DRY Matter) and Nutritive Values of Oil Palm
Fronds and Other Oil-Palm by-Products
Table 3 Mean Values for % DRY Matter, Crude Protein and DRY Matter Digestibility
(DMD - <I>in Vivo</I>) of Oil-Palm Fronds under Various Treatments
Table 4 Effect of the Level of Oil-Palm Fronds in Diet on the Performance of Beef Bulls
(Australian Commercial Cross Bulls - 6 Bulls/Treatment)
Table 5 Effect of the Level of Oil-Palm Fronds in the Diet on the Carcass Quality
of Beef Bulls (Australian Commercial Cross - 6 Bulls/Treatment)
Table 6 Effect of Feeding Different Levels of Oil-Palm Frond Silage on Milk Production
(Sahiwal Friesian Crossbred Dairy Cows, 9 Cows/Treatment)
Table 7 Profile of Selected Early Users of Oil-Palm Fronds As Livestock Feed
Table 8 Technical Capacity and Other Attributes of Early Adopters of Oil-Palm
Frond Technology

Treatment	Daily liveweight gain (g/head) Year		Daily liveweight gain (kg/ha) Year
	1	2	1*	2
(a) Guinea pasture in the open
Rotational grazing at 6 KK/ha	330	203	666	444
Continuous grazing at 6 KK/ha	361	253	726	552

(b) Native pasture under oil palm
Continuous grazing at 1 KK/ha	308	283	128	103
Continuous grazing at 2 KK/ha	320	228	214	166

Crossbred cattle	Liveweight gain (g/head/day)
	Open improved pasture	Irrigation bunds and roadsides	Under oil palm plantations
Kedah-Kelantan (KK)	186	88	249
Hereford x KK	301	95	306
Brahman x KK	203	121	249
Friesian x KK	234	138	205

	Stocking rate (head/ha)	Percentage of fronds damaged (%)
(a) 3 – year-old palm	1	22
	2	37
	3	45

(b) 4 – year-old palm	1	22
	2	41
	3	58

Oil-Palm Fronds As a Roughage Feed Source for Ruminants in Malaysia